Greenlandic ( kl, kalaallisut, link=no ; da, grønlandsk ) is an

Eskimo–Aleut language The Eskaleut (), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of w ...

with about 56,000 speakers, mostly

Greenlandic Inuit Greenlanders ( kl, Kalaallit / Tunumiit / Inughuit; da, Grønlændere) are people identified with Greenland or the indigenous people, the Greenlandic Inuit (''Grønlansk Inuit''; Kalaallit, Inughuit, and Tunumiit). This connection may be res ...

Greenland Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is t ...

. It is closely related to the

Inuit languages The Inuit languages are a closely related group of indigenous American languages traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and adjacent subarctic, reaching farthest south in Labrador. The related Yupik languages (spoken in western ...

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

such as

Inuktitut Inuktitut (; , syllabics ; from , "person" + , "like", "in the manner of"), also Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, is one of the principal Inuit languages of Canada. It is spoken in all areas north of the tree line, including parts of the provinces o ...

. It is the most widely spoken Eskimo–Aleut language. Greenlandic has been the sole

official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...

of the Greenlandic autonomous territory since June 2009, which is a move by the

Naalakkersuisut Naalakkersuisut ( en, Cabinet of Greenland, da, Grønlands Regering), is the chief executive body and the government of Greenland since the island became self-governing in 1979. An "autonomous territory" ( da, land) of the Kingdom of Denmark, tak ...

, the government of Greenland, to strengthen the language in its competition with the colonial language,

Danish Danish may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark People * A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark * Culture of Denmark * Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish a ...

. The main

variety Variety may refer to: Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats * Variety (radio) * Variety show, in theater and television Films * ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont * ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...

Kalaallisut Kalaallisut may refer to: * Greenlandic language * West Greenlandic West Greenlandic ( da, vestgrønlandsk), also known as Kalaallisut, is the primary language of Greenland and constitutes the Greenlandic language, spoken by the vast majority of ...

, or West Greenlandic. The second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat, or East Greenlandic. The language of the Thule Inuit of Greenland,

Inuktun Inuktun ( en, Polar Inuit, kl, avanersuarmiutut, da, nordgrønlandsk, polarinuitisk, thulesproget) is the language of approximately 1,000 indigenous Inughuit (Polar Inuit), inhabiting the world's northernmost settlements in Qaanaaq and the surr ...

or Polar Eskimo, is a recent arrival and a dialect of

. Greenlandic is a

polysynthetic language In linguistic typology, polysynthetic languages, formerly holophrastic languages, are highly synthetic languages, i.e. languages in which words are composed of many morphemes (word parts that have independent meaning but may or may not be able t ...

that allows the creation of long words by stringing together

roots A root is the part of a plant, generally underground, that anchors the plant body, and absorbs and stores water and nutrients. Root or roots may also refer to: Art, entertainment, and media * ''The Root'' (magazine), an online magazine focusing ...

and

suffixes In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the Stem (linguistics), stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the Grammatical conjugation ...

. The language's

morphosyntactic alignment In linguistics, morphosyntactic alignment is the grammatical relationship between Argument (linguistics), arguments—specifically, between the two arguments (in English, subject and object) of transitive verbs like ''the dog chased the cat'', an ...

is ergative, treating both the argument (subject) of an intransitive verb and the ''object'' of a transitive verb in one way, but the ''subject'' of a transitive verb in another. For example, "he plays the guitar" would be in the ergative case as a transitive agent, whereas "I bought a guitar" and "as the guitar plays" (the latter being the intransive sense of the same verb "to play") would both be in the absolutive case. Nouns are inflected by one of eight cases and for possession.

Verbs A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descrip ...

are inflected for one of eight moods and for the

number A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers c ...

and

person A person ( : people) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of property, ...

of its subject and

object Object may refer to: General meanings * Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept ** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place ** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter * Goal, an ...

. Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology. The basic

word order In linguistics, word order (also known as linear order) is the order of the syntactic constituents of a language. Word order typology studies it from a cross-linguistic perspective, and examines how different languages employ different orders. C ...

in transitive

clause In language, a clause is a constituent that comprises a semantic predicand (expressed or not) and a semantic predicate. A typical clause consists of a subject and a syntactic predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb with ...

s is

subject–object–verb Subject ( la, subiectus "lying beneath") may refer to: Philosophy *'' Hypokeimenon'', or ''subiectum'', in metaphysics, the "internal", non-objective being of a thing **Subject (philosophy), a being that has subjective experiences, subjective con ...

. The subordination of clauses uses special subordinate moods. A so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects. Greenlandic is notable for its lack of system of

grammatical tense In grammar, tense is a grammatical category, category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their grammatical conjugation, conjugation patterns. The main tenses foun ...

; and temporal relations are expressed normally by context but also by the use of temporal particles such as "yesterday" or "now" or sometimes by the use of derivational suffixes or the combination of affixes with aspectual meanings with the semantic

lexical aspect In linguistics, the lexical aspect or Aktionsart (, plural ''Aktionsarten'' ) of a verb is part of the way in which that verb is structured in relation to time. For example, the English verbs ''arrive'' and ''run'' differ in their lexical aspect ...

of different verbs. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic always marks

future tense In grammar, a future tense (abbreviated ) is a verb form that generally marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future. An example of a future tense form is the French ''aimera'', meaning ...

. Another question is whether the language has

noun incorporation In linguistics, incorporation is a phenomenon by which a grammatical category, such as a verb, forms a compound with its direct object (object incorporation) or adverbial modifier, while retaining its original syntactic function. The inclusion of ...

or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature. When adopting new concepts or technologies, Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots, but modern Greenlandic has also taken many

loans In finance, a loan is the lending of money by one or more individuals, organizations, or other entities to other individuals, organizations, etc. The recipient (i.e., the borrower) incurs a debt and is usually liable to pay interest on that de ...

from Danish and

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...

. The language has been written in

Latin script The Latin script, also known as Roman script, is an alphabetic writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, derived from a form of the Greek alphabet which was in use in the ancient Greek city of Cumae, in southern Italy ...

since Danish colonization began in the 1700s. Greenlandic's first

orthography An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation. Most transnational languages in the modern period have a writing system, and mos ...

was developed by

Samuel Kleinschmidt Samuel Petrus Kleinschmidt (27 February 1814–9 February 1886) was a German/Danish missionary linguist born in Greenland known for having written extensively about the Greenlandic language and having invented the orthography used for writing this ...

in 1851, but within 100 years, it already differed substantially from the

spoken language A spoken language is a language produced by articulate sounds or (depending on one's definition) manual gestures, as opposed to a written language. An oral language or vocal language is a language produced with the vocal tract in contrast with a si ...

because of a number of

sound changes A sound change, in historical linguistics, is a change in the pronunciation of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by a different one (called phonetic chang ...

. An extensive

orthographic reform A spelling reform is a deliberate, often authoritatively sanctioned or mandated change to spelling rules. Proposals for such reform are fairly common, and over the years, many languages have undergone such reforms. Recent high-profile examples ar ...

was undertaken in 1973 and made the

script Script may refer to: Writing systems * Script, a distinctive writing system, based on a repertoire of specific elements or symbols, or that repertoire * Script (styles of handwriting) ** Script typeface, a typeface with characteristics of handw ...

much easier to learn. This resulted in a boost in Greenlandic

literacy Literacy in its broadest sense describes "particular ways of thinking about and doing reading and writing" with the purpose of understanding or expressing thoughts or ideas in written form in some specific context of use. In other words, huma ...

, which is now among the highest in the world.

History

Greenlandic was brought to Greenland by the arrival of the

Thule people The Thule (, , ) or proto-Inuit were the ancestors of all modern Inuit. They developed in coastal Alaska by the year 1000 and expanded eastward across northern Canada, reaching Greenland by the 13th century. In the process, they replaced people ...

in the 1200s. The languages that were spoken by the earlier

Saqqaq Saqqaq (old spelling: ''Sarqaq'') is a settlement in the Avannaata municipality in western Greenland. Founded in 1755 as Solsiden, Saqqaq had 132 inhabitants in 2020. The village's Kalaallisut name is a translation of the Danish meaning "Sunny Sid ...

and

Dorset culture The Dorset was a Paleo-Eskimo culture, lasting from to between and , that followed the Pre-Dorset and preceded the Thule people (proto-Inuit) in the North American Arctic. The culture and people are named after Cape Dorset (now Kinngait) in N ...

s in Greenland are unknown. The first descriptions of Greenlandic date from the 1600s. With the arrival of Danish missionaries in the early 1700s and the beginning of Danish colonization of Greenland, the compilation of dictionaries and description of grammar began. The missionary

Paul Egede Paul or Poul Hansen Egede (9 September 1708 – 6 June 1789) was a Dano-Norwegian theologian, missionary, and scholar who was principally concerned with the Lutheran mission among the Kalaallit people in Greenland that had been established by his ...

wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750 and the first grammar in 1760. From the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language. In the 1950s, Denmark's linguistic policies were directed at strengthening Danish. Of primary significance was the fact that post-primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish. From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt. In 1973, a new orthography was introduced, intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard, which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidt's time. The reform was effective, and in the years following it, Greenlandic literacy has received a boost.Goldbach & Winther-Jensen (1988) Another development that has strengthened Greenlandic language is the policy of "Greenlandization" of Greenlandic society that began with the home rule agreement of 1979. The policy has worked to reverse the former trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education. The fact that Greenlandic has become the only language used in primary schooling means that monolingual Danish-speaking parents in Greenland are now raising children bilingual in Danish and Greenlandic. Greenlandic now has several dedicated news media: the Greenlandic National Radio,

Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa (; officially rendered into English as the Greenlandic Broadcasting Corporation), also known by its abbreviation KNR, is Greenland's national public broadcasting organization. Based in the country's capital city, Nuuk, ...

, which provides television and radio programming in Greenlandic. The newspaper '' Sermitsiaq'' has been published since 1958 and merged in 2010 with the other newspaper ''

Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten ''Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten'', usually referred to as AG, is one of the two newspapers in Greenland distributed nationwide. The newspaper is published twice a week on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The newspaper was created by a merger of a Kalaa ...

'', which had been established in 1861 to form a single large Greenlandic language publishing house. Before June 2009, Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish.{{efn, According to the Namminersornerullutik Oqartussat / Grønlands Hjemmestyres (Greenlands Home, official website): " ''Language. The official languages are Greenlandic and Danish.... Greenlandic is the language

hat is A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...

used in schools and

hat A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...

dominates in most towns and settlements''". Since then, Greenlandic has become the sole official language. That has made Greenlandic a unique example of an indigenous language of the Americas that is recognized by law as the only official language of a semi-independent country. Nevertheless, it is still considered to be in a "vulnerable" state by the UNESCO Red Book of Language Endangerment. The country has a 100% literacy rate. As the Western Greenlandic standard has become dominant, a

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...

report has labelled the other dialects as endangered, and measures are now being considered to protect the Eastern Greenlandic dialect.

Classification

and the other Greenlandic dialects belong to the Eskimo–Aleut family and are closely related to the

and

Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...

. Illustration 1 shows the locations of the different Inuit languages, among them the three main dialects of Greenlandic. {, class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right;" , + Example of differences between the 3 main dialects ! English ! Kalaallisut ! Inuktun ! Tunumiisut , - , humans , ''inuit'' , ''inughuit'' , ''iivit''Mennecier(1995) p 102 The most prominent Greenlandic dialect is Kalaallisut, which is the official language of Greenland. The name ''Kalaallisut'' is often used as a cover term for all of Greenlandic. The northern dialect, ''

(Avanersuarmiutut)'', is spoken in the vicinity of the city of

Qaanaaq Qaanaaq (), formerly known as Thule or New Thule, is the main town in the northern part of the Avannaata municipality in northwestern Greenland. It is one of the northernmost cities and towns, northernmost towns in the world. The inhabitants of ...

(Thule) and is particularly closely related to Canadian Inuktitut. The eastern dialect ''( Tunumiit oraasiat)'', spoken in the vicinity of Ammassalik Island and

Ittoqqortoormiit Ittoqqortoormiit (East Greenlandic: ; West Greenlandic: ''Illoqqortoormiut'' ), formerly known as Scoresbysund, is a settlement in the Sermersooq municipality in eastern Greenland. Its population was 345 as of 2020 and has been described as one of ...

, is the most innovative of the Greenlandic dialects since it has assimilated

consonant cluster In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education fie ...

s and vowel sequences more than West Greenlandic.Mahieu & Tersis (2009) p. 53 Kalaallisut is further divided into four subdialects. One that is spoken around

Upernavik Upernavik (Kalaallisut: "Springtime Place") is a small town in the Avannaata municipality in northwestern Greenland, located on a small island of the same name. With 1,092 inhabitants as of 2020, it is the twelfth-largest town in Greenland. It c ...

has certain similarities to East Greenlandic, possibly because of a previous migration from eastern Greenland. A second dialect is spoken in the region of

Uummannaq Uummannaq is a town in the Avannaata municipality, in central-western Greenland. With 1,407 inhabitants in 2020, it is the eighth-largest town in Greenland, and is home to the country's most northerly ferry terminal. Founded in 1763 as Omenak, ...

and the

Disko Bay Disko Bay ( kl, Qeqertarsuup tunua; da, DiskobugtenChristensen, N.O. & al.Elections in Greenland. ''Arctic Circular'', Vol. 4 (1951), pp. 83–85. Op. cit. "Northern News". ''Arctic'', Vol. 5, No. 1 (Mar 1952), pp. 58–59.) is a large ...

. The standard language is based on the central Kalaallisut dialect spoken in

Sisimiut Sisimiut (), formerly known as Holsteinsborg, is the capital and largest city of the Qeqqata municipality, the second-largest city in Greenland, and the largest Arctic city in North America.The term 'city' is loosely used to describe any popula ...

in the north, around

Nuuk Nuuk (; da, Nuuk, formerly ) is the capital and largest city of Greenland, a constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark. Nuuk is the seat of government and the country's largest cultural and economic centre. The major cities from other co ...

and as far south as

Maniitsoq Maniitsoq (), formerly Sukkertoppen, is a town in Maniitsoq Island, western Greenland located in the Qeqqata municipality. With 2,534 inhabitants , it is the sixth-largest town in Greenland. History Archaeological finds indicate that the area ...

. Southern Kalaallisut is spoken around

Narsaq Narsaq is a town in the Kujalleq municipality in southern Greenland. The name ''Narsaq'' is Kalaallisut for "Plain", referring to the shore of Tunulliarfik Fjord where the town is located. History People have lived in the area for thousands of ...

and

Qaqortoq Qaqortoq, formerly Julianehåb, is a city in the Kujalleq municipalities of Greenland, municipality in southern Greenland, located near Cape Thorvaldsen. With a population of 3,050 in 2020, it is the most populous town and the municipal capital in ...

in the south.Rischel, Jørgen. Grønlandsk spro

Den Store Danske Encyklopædi ''Den Store Danske Encyklopædi'' (''The Great Danish Encyclopedia'') is the most comprehensive contemporary Danish language encyclopedia. The 20 volumes of the encyclopedia were published successively between 1994 and 2001; a one-volume suppleme ...

Vol. 8, Gyldendal Table 1 shows the differences in the pronunciation of the word for "humans" in the three main dialects. It can be seen that Inuktun is the most conservative by maintaining {{vr, gh, which has been elided in Kalaallisut, and Tunumiisut is the most innovative by further simplifying its structure by eliding {{IPA, /n/.

Phonology

{{Main, Greenlandic phonology {, class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! !

Front Front may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films * ''The Front'' (1943 film), a 1943 Soviet drama film * ''The Front'', 1976 film Music * The Front (band), an American rock band signed to Columbia Records and active in the 1980s and e ...

Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...

Back The human back, also called the dorsum, is the large posterior area of the human body, rising from the top of the buttocks to the back of the neck. It is the surface of the body opposite from the chest and the abdomen. The vertebral column run ...

, - !

Close Close may refer to: Music * ''Close'' (Kim Wilde album), 1988 * ''Close'' (Marvin Sapp album), 2017 * ''Close'' (Sean Bonniwell album), 1969 * "Close" (Sub Focus song), 2014 * "Close" (Nick Jonas song), 2016 * "Close" (Rae Sremmurd song), 201 ...

, {{IPA link, i ({{IPA link, y) , ({{IPA link, ʉ) , {{IPA link, u , - ! Mid , colspan="2" , ({{IPA link, e~{{IPA link, ɛ~{{IPA link, ɐ) , ({{IPA link, o~{{IPA link, ɔ) , - !

Open Open or OPEN may refer to: Music * Open (band), Australian pop/rock band * The Open (band), English indie rock band * ''Open'' (Blues Image album), 1969 * ''Open'' (Gotthard album), 1999 * ''Open'' (Cowboy Junkies album), 2001 * ''Open'' (YF ...

, colspan="2" , {{IPA link, a , ({{IPA link, ɑ) West_Greenlandic_vowel_chart

The Greenlandic three-

vowel A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (leng ...

system, composed of {{IPA, /i/, {{IPA, /u/, and {{IPA, /a/, is typical for an Eskimo–Aleut language. Double vowels are analyzed as two

morae A mora (plural ''morae'' or ''moras''; often symbolized μ) is a basic timing unit in the phonology of some spoken languages, equal to or shorter than a syllable. For example, a short syllable such as ''ba'' consists of one mora (''monomoraic'') ...

and so they are phonologically a vowel sequence and not a long vowel. They are also orthographically written as two vowels.Jacobsen (2000) There is only one diphthong, {{IPA, /ai/, which occurs only at the ends of words. Before a

uvular consonant Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. Uvulars may be stops, fricatives, nasals, trills, or approximants, though the IPA does not provi ...

({{IPA, /q/ or {{IPA, /ʁ/), {{IPA, /i/ is realized allophonically as {{IPA, }, {{IPA, �} or {{IPA, �}, and {{IPA, /u/ is realized allophonically as {{IPA, } or {{IPA, �}, and the two vowels are written {{vr, e, o respectively (as in some orthographies used for

Quechua Quechua may refer to: *Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru *Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language **So ...

and

Aymara Aymara may refer to: Languages and people * Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language ** Aymara language, the main language within that family ** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...

).{{cite book , last1=Hagerup , first1=Asger , title=A Phonological Analysis of Vowel Allophony in West Greenlandic , date=2011 , publisher=NTNU {{IPA, /a/ becomes retracted to {{IPA, �} in the same environment. {{IPA, /i/ is rounded to {{IPA, } before labial consonants. {{IPA, /u/ is fronted to {{IPA, �} between two coronal consonants. The allophonic lowering of {{IPA, /i/ and {{IPA, /u/ before uvular consonants is shown in the modern orthography by writing {{IPA, /i/ and {{IPA, /u/ as {{vr, e and {{vr, o respectively before {{vr, q and {{vr, r. For example: * {{IPA, /ui/ "husband" pronounced {{IPA, i}. * {{IPA, /uiqarpuq/ "(s)he has a husband" pronounced {{IPA, eqɑppɔq} and written {{angbr, ueqarpoq. * {{IPA, /illu/ "house" pronounced {{IPA, ɬɬu}. * {{IPA, /illuqarpuq/ "(s)he has a house" pronounced {{IPA, [iɬɬoqɑppɔq] and written {{angbr, illoqarpoq. {, class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! !Labial consonant, Labial !Alveolar consonant, Alveolar !Palatal consonant, Palatal !Velar consonant, Velar !Uvular consonant, Uvular , - !Nasal stop, Nasals , {{IPA link, m {{vr, m , {{IPA link, n {{vr, n , , {{IPA link, ŋ {{vr, ng , {{IPA link, ɴ {{vr, rn{{efn, The uvular nasal {{IPA, [ɴ] is not found in all dialects and there is dialectal variability regarding its status as a phoneme (Rischel 1974:176–181) , - !Plosives , {{IPA link, p {{vr, p , {{IPA link, t {{vr, t , , {{IPA link, k {{vr, k , {{IPA link, q {{vr, q , - !Affricate , , {{IPA link, t͡s{{efn, Short {{IPA, [t͡s] is in complementary distribution with short {{IPA, [t], with the former appearing before {{IPA, /i/ and the latter elsewhere; both are written {{angbr, t and could be analysed as belonging to the same phoneme {{IPA, /t/. Before {{IPA, /i/, long {{IPA, [tt͡s] occurs while long {{IPA, [tt] doesn't, so long {{IPA, [tt͡s] before {{IPA, /i/ could be analysed as long {{IPA, /tt/. However, before {{IPA, /a/ and {{IPA, /u/, both long {{IPA, [tt͡s] and long {{IPA, [tt] occur (except in some dialects, including that of Greenland's Ilulissat, third largest town). Long {{IPA, [tt͡s] is always written {{vr, ts, e.g. {{lang, kl, asavatsigut ‘you love us’, {{lang, kl, atsa ‘aunt (father's sister)’, {{lang, kl,

. , , , , - !Fricatives , {{IPA link, v {{vr, v{{efn, {{vr, ff is the way of writing the devoiced {{IPA, /vv/ geminate consonant, geminate; {{IPA, /rv/ is written {{vr, rf; otherwise, {{vr, f occurs only in loanwords. , {{IPA link, s {{vr, s , {{IPA link, ʃ{{efn, {{IPA, /ʃ/ is found in some dialects (including those of Greenland's two largest towns) but is not distinguished from {{IPA, /s/ in the written language. , {{IPA link, ɣ {{vr, g , {{IPA link, ʁ {{vr, r , - !Liquid consonant, Liquids , , {{IPA link, l {{vr, l , , , , - !Semivowel , , , {{IPA link, j {{vr, j , , The palatal sibilant {{IPA, [ʃ] has merged with {{IPA, [s] in all dialects except those of the

–

–Paamiut area. The labiodental fricative {{IPA, [f] is contrastive only in Loanword, loanwords. The alveolar stop {{IPA, /t/ is pronounced as an affricate {{IPA, [t͡s] before the high front vowel {{IPA, /i/. Often, Danish loanwords containing {{vr, b d g preserve these in writing, but that does not imply a change in pronunciation, for example {{vr, baaja {{IPA, [paːja] "beer" and {{angbr, Guuti {{IPA, [kuːtˢi] "God"; these are pronounced exactly as {{IPA, /p t k/.{{Cite web , title=grønlandsk {{! lex.dk , url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/gr%C3%B8nlandsk , access-date=2022-11-11 , website=Den Store Danske , language=da

Grammar

Morphology

The morphology (linguistics), morphology of Greenlandic is highly polysynthetic, synthetic and exclusively suffixing except for a single highly-limited and fossilized demonstrative prefix. The language creates very long words by means of adding strings of suffixes to a stem.{{efn, For example the word {{lang, kl, Nalunaarasuartaatilioqateeraliorfinnialikkersaatiginialikkersaatilillaranatagoorunarsuarooq, which means something like "Once again they tried to build a giant radio station, but it was apparently only on the drawing board". In principle, there is no limit to the length of a Greenlandic word, but in practice, words with more than six derivational suffixes are not so frequent, and the average number of morphemes per word is three to five.{{efn, That can be compared to the English rate, of slightly more than one morpheme per word. The language has around 318 inflectional suffixes and between 400 and 500 derivational suffixes. There are few compound words but many derivations. The grammar uses a mixture of head-marking language, head and dependent-marking language, dependent marking. Both agent (grammar), agent and patient (grammar), patient are marked on the predicate, and the possessor is marked on nouns, with dependent noun phrases inflecting for case. The primary

of full noun phrases in Kalaallisut is ergative language, ergative-absolutive, but verbal morphology follows a nominative–accusative language, nominative-accusative pattern and pronouns are syntactically neutral. The language distinguishes four persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th or 3rd reflexive (see #Obviation and switch-reference, Obviation and switch-reference); two numbers (singular and plural but no dual (grammatical number), dual, unlike Inuktitut); eight moods (indicative, interrogative, imperative, optative, conditional, causative, contemporative and participial) and eight cases (absolutive, ergative, equative, instrumental, locative, allative, ablative and prolative).

Declension

{, class="wikitable" , + !Case !Singular !Plural , - !Absolutive , +∅ , rowspan="2" , +t , - !Ergative , +p , - !Instrumental , +mik , +nik , - !Allative , +mut , +nut , - !Ablative , +mit , +nit , - !Locative , +mi , +ni , - !Prolative , +kkut , +tigut , - !Equative , colspan="2" , +tut Verbs carry a bipersonal inflection for subject and object. Possessive noun phrases inflect for both possessor and case case.{{what, date=May 2022 In this section, the examples are written in Greenlandic standard orthography except that morpheme boundaries are indicated by a hyphen.

Syntax

Greenlandic distinguishes three Open class (linguistics), open word classes: nouns, verbs and grammatical particle, particles. Verbs inflect for person and number of subject and object as well as for mood. Nouns inflect for possession and for case. Particles do not inflect.Bjørnum (2003) {, class="wikitable" ! !! Verb!! Noun!! Particle , - ! Word , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Oqar-poq, say-3SG/IND, "he says" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Angut, man.ABS, "A man" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Naamik, No, "No" The verb is the only word that is required in a sentence. Since verbs inflect for number and person of both subject and object, the verb is in fact a clause itself. Therefore, clauses in which all participants are expressed as free-standing noun phrases are rather rare. The following examples show the possibilities of leaving out the verbal arguments: Intransitive clause with no subject noun phrase: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Sini-ppoq , sleep-3SG/IND , "(S)he sleeps" Intransitive clause with subject noun phrase: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Angut sinippoq , man.ABS sleep-3SG/IND , "the man sleeps" Transitive clause with no overt arguments: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Asa-vaa , love-3SG/3SG , "(S)he loves him/her/it" Transitive clause with agent noun phrase: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Angut-ip asa-vaa , man-ERG love-3SG/3SG , "the man loves him/her/it" Transitive clause with patient noun phrase: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Arnaq asa-vaa , woman.ABS love-3SG/3SG , "(S)he loves the woman"

Morphosyntactic alignment

The Greenlandic language uses case (grammar), case to express grammatical relations between participants in a sentence. Nouns are inflected with one of the two core cases or one of the six oblique cases. Greenlandic is an ergative–absolutive language and so instead of treating the morphosyntax, grammatical relations, as in English and most other Indo-European languages, whose grammatical subject (grammar), subjects are marked with the nominative case and object (grammar), objects with the accusative case, Greenlandic grammatical roles are defined differently. Its ergative case is used for agent (grammar), agents of transitive verbs and for possessors. The absolutive case is used for patients of transitive verbs and subjects of intransitive verbs. Research into Greenlandic as used by the younger generation has shown that the use of ergative alignment in Kalaallisut may be becoming obsolete, which would convert the language into a nominative–accusative language. Intransitive: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Anda sini-ppoq , Anda.ABS sleep-3SG/IND , "Anda sleeps" Transitive with agent and object: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Anda-p nanoq taku-aa , Anda-ERG bear.ABS see-3SG/3SG , "Anda sees a bear"

Word order

In transitive clauses whose object and subject are expressed as free noun phrases, the basic pragmatically-neutral word order is subject–object–verb, SOV / SOXV in which X is a noun phrase in one of the oblique cases. However, word order is fairly free. Topic (linguistics), Topical noun phrases occur at the beginning of a clause. New or emphasized information generally come last, which is usually the verb but can also be a focus (linguistics), focal subject or object. As well, in the spoken language, "afterthought" material or clarifications may follow the verb, usually in a lowered pitch. On the other hand, the noun phrase is characterized by a rigid order in which the head of the phrase precedes any modifiers and the possessor precedes the possessed.{{fv, date=May 2022 In copula (linguistics), copula clauses, the word order is usually subject-copula-complement. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Andap tujuuluk pisiaraa , Anda sweater bought , A O V , "Anda bought the sweater" An attribute appears after its head noun. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Andap tujuuluk tungujortoq pisiaraa , Anda sweater blue bought , A O X V , "Anda bought the blue sweater" An attribute of an incorporated noun appears after the verb: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Anda sanasuuvoq pikkorissoq , Anda {carpenter-is} skilled , S V APP , "Anda is a skilled carpenter"

Coordination and subordination

Syntactic coordination (linguistics), coordination and subordination (linguistics), subordination is built by combining predicates in the superordinate moods (indicative, interrogative, imperative and optative) with predicates in the subordinate moods (conditional, causative, contemporative and participial). The contemporative has both coordinative and subordinative functions, depending on the context. The relative order of the main clause and its coordinate or subordinate clauses is relatively free and is subject mostly to pragmatics, pragmatic concerns.

Obviation and switch-reference

The Greenlandic pronominal system includes a distinction known as obviative, obviation or switch-reference. There is a special so-called fourth person to denote a third person subject of a subordinate verb or the possessor of a noun that is coreferent with the third person subject of the matrix clause. Here are examples of the difference between third and the fourth persons: {, ! width="50%" , third person ! ! width="50%" , fourth person , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, illu-a taku-aa, house-3.POSS see-3SG/3SG, "he saw his (the other man's) house" , , {{interlinear, lang=kl, illu-ni taku-aa, house-4.POSS see-3SG/3SG, "he saw his own house" , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Ole oqar-poq tillu-kkiga, Ole say-3SG hit-1SG/3SG, "Ole said I had hit him (the other man)" , , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Ole oqar-poq tillu-kkini, Ole say-3SG hit-1SG/4, "Ole said I had hit him (Ole)" , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Eva iser-pat sini-ssaa-q, Eva {come in}-3SG sleep-expect-3SG, "When Eva comes in (s)he'll sleep (someone else)" , , {{interlinear, lang=kl, Eva iser-uni sini-ssaa-q, Eva {come in}-4 sleep-expect-3SG, "When Eva comes in she'll sleep"

Indefiniteness construction

There is no category of definiteness in Greenlandic and so information on whether participants are already known to the listener or they are new to the discourse is encoded by other means. According to some authors, morphology related to transitivity such as the use of the construction sometimes called antipassive voice, antipassiveSadock (2003) or intransitive object conveys such meaning, along with strategies of noun incorporation of non-topical noun phrases. That view, however, is controversial.Bittner (1987) Active: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Piitap arfeq takuaa , Peter-ERG whale see , "Peter saw the whale" Antipassive/intransitive object: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Piitaq arfermik takuvoq , Peter-ABS whale-INSTR see , "Peter saw (a) whale"

Verbs

The morphology of Greenlandic verbs is enormously complex. The main processes are inflection and derivation (linguistics), derivation. Inflectional morphology includes the processes of obligatory inflection for mood, person and voice (grammar), voice (tense and grammatical aspect, aspect are not inflectional categories in Kalaallisut).Shaer (2003)Bittner (2005)Hayashi& Spreng (2005) Derivational morphology modifies the meaning of verbs similarly to English adverbs. There are hundreds of such derivational suffixes. Many of them are so semantically salient and so they are often referred to as postbases, rather than suffixes, particularly in the American tradition of Eskimo grammar. Such semantically "heavy" suffixes may express concepts such as "to have", "to be", "to say" or "to think". The Greenlandic verb word consists of a root, followed by derivational suffixes/postbases and then inflectional suffixes. Tense and aspect are marked by optional suffixes between the derivational and the inflectional suffixes.

Inflection

Greenlandic verbs inflect for agreement (linguistics), agreement with agent and patient and for mood and for voice. There are eight moods, four of which are used in independent clauses the others in subordinate clauses. The four independent moods are indicative, interrogative mood, interrogative, imperative mood, imperative and optative. The four dependent moods are causative, conditional, contemporative and participial. Verbal roots can take transitive, intransitive or negation (linguistics), negative inflections and so all eight mood suffixes have those three forms. The inflectional system is even more complex since transitive suffixes encode both agent and patient in a single morpheme, with up to 48 different suffixes covering all possible combinations of agent and patient for each of the eight transitive paradigms. As some moods do not have forms for all persons (imperative has only 2nd person, optative has only 1st and 3rd person, participial mood has no 4th person and contemporative has no 3rd person), the total number of verbal inflectional suffixes is about 318.

= Indicative and interrogative moods

= The indicative mood is used in all independent expository clauses. The interrogative mood is used for Question#Grammar, questions that do not have the question particle ''immaqa'' "maybe". interrogative mood: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , napparsima-vit? , {be sick}-2/INTERR , "Are you sick?" indicative mood: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , naamik, napparsima-nngila-nga , no, {be sick}-NEG-1/IND , "No, I am not sick" The table below shows the intransitive inflection of the verb ''neri-'' "to eat" in the indicative and interrogative moods (question marks mark interrogative intonation; questions have falling intonation on the last syllable, unlike English and most other Indo-European languages, whose questions are marked by rising intonation). Both the indicative and the interrogative mood have a transitive and an intransitive inflection, but only the intransitive inflection is given here. Consonant gradation like in Finnish language, Finnish appears to occur in the verb conjugation (with strengthening to ''pp'' in the 3rd person plural and weakening to ''v'' elsewhere). {, class="wikitable" , + Intransitive indicative and interrogative moods ! indicative ! interrogative , - , ''nerivunga'' "I am eating" , ''nerivunga?'' "Am I eating?" , - , ''nerivutit'' "You are eating" , ''nerivit?'' "Are you eating?" , - , ''nerivoq'' "He/she/it eats" , ''neriva?'' "Is he/she/it eating?" , - , ''nerivugut'' "We are eating" , ''nerivugut?'' "Are we eating?" , - , ''nerivusi'' "You are eating (pl.)" , ''nerivisi?'' "Are you eating? (pl.)" , - , ''neripput'' "They are eating" , ''nerippat?'' "Are they eating?" The table below shows the transitive indicative inflection for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person singular subjects of the verb ''asa-'' "to love" (an asterisk means that the form does not occur as such but uses a different reflexive inflection). {, class="wikitable" , + Transitive indicative mood: singular subject ! First person singular subject ! Second person singular subject ! Third person singular subject , - , * , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavarma, love-2SG/1SG, "You love me" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavaanga, love-3SG/1SG, "He/she/it loves me" , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavakkit, love-1SG/2SG, "I love you" , * , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavaatit, love-3SG/2SG, "He/she/it loves you" , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavara, love-1SG/3SG, "I love him/her/it" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavat, love-2SG/3SG, "You love her/him/it" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavaa, love-3SG/3SG, "He/she/it loves him/her/it" , - , * , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavatsigut, love-2SG/1PL, "You love us" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavaatigut, love-3SG/1PL, "He/she/it loves us" , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavassi, love-1SG/2PL, "I love you (pl.)" , * , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavaasi, love-3SG/2PL, "He/she/it loves you (pl.)" , - , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavakka, love-1SG/3PL, "I love them" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavatit, love-2SG/3PL, "You love them" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, asavai, love-3SG/3PL, "He/she/it loves them" The table below gives the basic form of all the inflexional suffixes in the indicative and interrogative moods. Where the indicative and interrogative forms differ, the interrogative form is given second in brackets. Suffixes used with intransitive verbs are in ''italics'', while suffixes used with transitive verbs are unmarked. {, class=wikitable ! rowspan=2 colspan=2 , Subject of transitive verb ! colspan =6 , Object of transitive verb or ''subject of intransitive verb'' , - ! 1st person singular !! 2nd person singular !! 3rd person singular !! 1st person plural !! 2nd person plural !! 3rd person plural , - ! rowspan=1 colspan=2, , ''vunga'' , , ''vutit'' [''vit?''] , , ''voq'' [''va?''] , , ''vugut'' , , ''vusi'' [''visi?''] , , ''pput'' [''ppat?''] , - ! rowspan=2 colspan=1, 1st person ! Singular , rowspan=2, , , vakkit , , vara, , rowspan=2, , , rowspan=2 , vassi , , vakka , - ! Plural , , vatsigit , , varput , , vavut , - ! rowspan=2 colspan=1, 2nd person ! Singular , varma [vinga?] , , rowspan=2, , , vat [viuk?] , , rowspan=2, vatsigut [visigut?] , , rowspan=2 , , , vatit [vigit?] , - ! Plural , vassinga [visinga?] , , varsi [visiuk?] , , vasi [visigit?] , - ! rowspan=2 colspan=1, 3rd person ! Singular , vaanga , , vaatit , , vaa , , rowspan=2, vaatigut , , rowspan=2, vaasi , , vai , - ! Plural , vaannga , , vaatsit , , vaat , , vaat Apart from the similarities between forms highlighted in bold, it will be observed that all basic forms start with ''v-'' except for the 3rd person plural intransitive forms, that all basic ''transitive'' indicative forms have {{IPA, /a/ as their first vowel, that all basic ''intransitive'' indicative forms have {{IPA, /u/ as their first vowel (''voq'' is phonemically {{IPA, /vuq/), and that all basic forms unique to the interrogative mood have {{IPA, /i/ as their first vowel except for the 3rd person intransitive forms. Furthermore, if the subject of a transitive verb is 3rd person, the suffix will start with ''vaa-'' (with one exception). In the forms unique to the interrogative transitive (which all have 2nd person subjects), the forms with a (2nd person) ''singular'' subject are turned into forms with a (2nd person) ''plural'' subject by adding ''-si-'' after the initial ''vi-'' (except when the object is 1st person plural, in which case the same form is used for both plural and singular subject, as is the case for all indicative and interrogative forms with the object in the 1st or 2nd person plural). When the object is 1st or 2nd person singular, the forms with a 3rd person ''singular'' subject are turned into forms with a (3rd person) ''plural'' subject by lengthening the second consonant: {{IPA, [vaːŋa] → {{IPA, [vaːŋŋa], {{IPA, [vaːt͡sit̚] → {{IPA, [vaːtt͡sit̚]. If the subject or object is 2nd person plural, the suffix will include ''-si(-)''. If the subject or object is 1st person plural, the suffix will end in ''-t'' except when the object is 2nd person plural. The interrogative mood has separate forms only when the subject is 2nd person or intransitive 3rd person; otherwise, the interrogative forms are identical to the indicative forms. All suffixes that start with ''vi-'' have a subject in the 2nd person. The initial ''v-'' changes to ''p-'' or is deleted according to the rules described Greenlandic language#Rules, above. After the suffix ''-nngil-'' ‘not’, ''v-'' is deleted (while the ''pp-'' of the 3rd person plural intransitive forms is changed to ''l-'') and a first vowel {{IPA, /u/ is changed to {{IPA, /a/ (e.g. ''suli+vugut'' ‘we work’ but ''suli-nngil+agut'' ‘we don't work’). The intransitive 2nd person does not have separate interrogative forms after ''-nngil-'', hence e.g. ''suli+vutit'' ‘you (sg.) work’, ''suli-nngil+atit'' ‘you (sg.) don't work’, ''suli+vit?'' ‘do you (sg.) work?’, ''suli-nngil+atit?'' ‘don't you (sg.) work?’ (instead of the expected *''suli-nngil+it?''). After the future suffix ''-ssa-'', ''vu-'' and ''vo-'' (both {{IPA, /vu/) change to ''a-''. (''Va-'', ''vi-'', ''ppu-'', and ''ppa-'' do not change.) After the suffix ''-qa-'' ‘very’, ''vu-'', ''vo-'', ''va-'', ''vi-'', ''ppu-'', and ''ppa-'' all change to ''a-'' (except when this would lead to ''aaa'', in which case ''aaa'' is shortened to ''aa''). ''-qa-'' + ''vai'' becomes ''qai'', not *''qaai''. (In accordance with the Greenlandic language#Rule, rule, ''aau'' becomes ''aaju'', hence ''-qa-'' + ''viuk'' becomes ''qaajuk'', not *''qaauk''.) The suffix ''-qa-'' was historically ''-qi-''.

= Imperative and optative moods

= The imperative mood is used to issue orders and is always combined with the second person. The optative is used to express wishes or exhortations and is never used with the second person. There is a negative imperative form used to issue prohibitions. Both optative and imperative have transitive and intransitive paradigms. There are two transitive positive imperative paradigms: a standard one and another that is considered rude and is used usually to address children. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , sini-git! , sleep-IMP , "Sleep!" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , sini-llanga , sleep-1.OPT , "Let me sleep!" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , sini-nnak! , sleep-NEG.IMP , "Don't sleep!"

= Conditional mood

= The conditional mood is used to construct subordinate clauses that mean "if" or "when". {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , seqinner-pat Eva ani-ssaa-q , sunshine-COND Eva {go out}-expect/3SG , "If the sun shines, Eva will go out"

= Causative mood

= The causative mood (sometimes called the ''conjunctive'') is used to construct subordinate clauses that mean "because", "since" or "when" and is also sometimes used to mean "that". The causative is used also in main clauses to imply some underlying cause. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , qasu-gami innar-poq , {be tired}-CAU/3SG {go to bed}-3SG , "He went to bed because he was tired" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , matta-ttor-ama , blubber-eat-CAU/1SG , "I've eaten blubber (that's why I'm not hungry)" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , ani-guit eqqaama-ssa-vat teriannia-qar-mat , {go out}-COND/2SG remember-FUT-IMP fox-are-CAUS , "If you go out, remember that there are foxes"

= Contemporative mood

= The contemporative mood is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning of simultaneity and is used only if the subject of the subordinate clause and of the main clause are identical. If they differ, the participial mood or the causative mood is used. The contemporative can also be used to form complement clauses for verbs of speaking or thinking. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , qasu-llunga angerlar-punga , {be tired}-CONT.1SG go.home-1SG , "Being tired, I went home" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , 98-inik ukio-qar-luni toqu-voq , 98-INSTR.PL year-have-CONT.4.SG die-3SG , "Being 98 years old, he/she died", "he/she was 98 when he/she died" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Eva oqar-poq kami-it akiler-lugit , Eva say-3SG boot-PL pay-CONT.3PL , "Eva said she had paid for the boots"

= Participial mood

= The participial mood is used to construct a subordinate clause describing its subject in the state of carrying out an activity. It is used when the matrix clause and the subordinate clause have different subjects. It is often used in appositional phrases such as relative clauses. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , atuar-toq taku-ara , read-PART/3SG see-1SG/3SG , "I saw her read/I saw that she read" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , neriu-ppunga tiki-ssa-soq , hope-1SG come-expect-PART/3SG , "I hope he is coming/I hope he'll come"

Derivation

Verbal derivation is extremely productive, and Greenlandic has many hundreds of derivational suffixes. Often, a single verb uses more than one derivational suffix, resulting in very long words. Here are some examples of how derivational suffixes can change the meaning of verbs: {, class="wikitable" ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -katak-, {"be tired of" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, taku-katap-para, see-tired.of-1SG/3SG, "I am tired of seeing it/him/her , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -ler-, {"begin to/be about to" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, neri-ler-pugut, eat-begin-1PL, "We are about to eat" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -llaqqik-, {"be proficient at" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, erinar-su-llaqqip-poq, sing-HAB-proficiently-3SG, She is good at singing , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -niar-, {"plans to/wants to" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, aallar-niar-poq, travel-plan-3SG, "He plans to travel" {{interlinear, lang=kl, angerlar-niar-aluar-punga, go.home-plan-though-1SG, "I was planning to go home though" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -ngajak-, "almost"} , {{interlinear, lang=kl, sini-ngajap-punga, sleep-almost-1SG, "I had almost fallen asleep" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -nikuu-nngila-, {"has never" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, taku-nikuu-nngila-ra, see-never-NEG-1SG/3SG, "I have never seen it" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, -nngitsoor-, {"not anyway/afterall" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, tiki-nngitsoor-poq, arrive-not.afterall-3SG, "He hasn't arrived after all"

Time reference and aspect

Greenlandic grammar has morphological devices to mark a distinction between the recent and distant past, but their use is optional and so they should be understood as parts of Greenlandic's extensive derivational system, rather than as a system of tense (grammar), tense-markers. Rather than by morphological marking, fixed temporal distance is expressed by temporal adverbials: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , toqo-riikatap-poq , die-long.ago-3sg/IND , "He died long ago"Fortescue (1984) p. 273 {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , nere-qqammer-punga , eat-recently-1sg/IND , "I ate recently" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , ippassaq Piitaq arpap-poq , yesterday Peter-ABS run-3sg/IND , "Yesterday Peter was running."Trondhjem (2009) p. 174 All other things being equal and in the absence of any explicit adverbials, the indicative mood is interpreted as complete or incomplete, depending on the verbal

. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Piitaq arpap-poq , Peter-ABS run-3sg/IND , "Peter runs" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Piitaq ani-voq , Peter-ABS go.out-3sg/IND , "Peter was gone out" However, if a sentence with an atelic verbal phrase is embedded within the context of a past-time narrative, it would be interpreted as past. Greenlandic has several purely-derivational devices of expressing meaning related to aspect and lexical aspect such as ''sar'', expressing "habituality", and {{lang, kl, ssaar, expressing, "stop to". Also, there are at least two major perfect markers: ''sima'' and ''nikuu''. ''sima'' can occur in several positions with obviously-different functions. The last position indicates evidential meaning, but that can be determined only if several suffixes are present. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , tiki(k)-nikuu-sima-voq , arrive-nikuu-sima-3sg/INT , "Apparently, she had arrived" With telicity, atelic verbs, there is a regular contrast between indirective evidentiality, marked by ''sima'', and witnessed evidentiality, marked by ''nikuu''.Trondhjem (2009) p. 179 Its evidential meaning causes the combination of first person and ''sima'' to be sometimes marked. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , qia-sima-voq , cry-sima-3sg/IND , "He cried (his eyes are swollen)" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , qia-nikuu-voq , cry-nikuu-3sg/IND , "He cried (I was there)" In the written language and more recently also in the spoken language, especially by younger speakers, ''sima'' and ''nikuu'' can be used together with adverbials to refer to a particular time in the past. That is, they can arguably mark time reference but do not yet do so systematically. Just as Greenlandic does not systematically mark past tense, the language also does not have a future tense. Rather, it employs three different strategies to express future meaning: * suffixes denoting cognitive states that show an attitude about prospective actions. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Ilimaga-ara aasaq manna Dudley qujanar-tor-si-ffigi-ssa-llugu , expect-1sg/3sg/IND summer this Dudley be.fun-cn-get.from-expect-CONT/3sg , "I expect to get some fun out of Dudley this summer." * inchoative suffixes creating telic actions that can then be understood as already having begun by virtue of the indicative mood. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Aggiuti-ler-para , bring-begin-1sg/3sg/IND , "I've started to bring him." * moods that mark the speech act as a request or wish. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Qimmii-t nerisi(k)-tigit , dog-PL feed-please-we/them/IMP , "Let us feed the dogs, ok?" The status of the perfect markers as aspect is not very controversial, but some scholars have claimed that Greenlandic has a basic temporal distinction between future and nonfuture tense, nonfuture. Especially, the suffix ''-ssa'' and handful of other suffixes have been claimed to be obligatory future markers. However, at least for literary Greenlandic, the suffixes have been shown to have other semantics, which can be used to refer to the future by the strategies that have just been described.

Voice

Greenlandic has an antipassive voice, which transforms the ergative subject into an absolutive subject and the absolutive object into an instrumental argument; it is formed mostly by the addition of the marker ''-(s)i-'' to the verb (the presence of the consonant being mostly phonologically determined, albeit with a few cases of lexically determined distribution) and, in small lexically restricted sets of verbs, by the addition of ''-nnig-'' or ''-ller-'' (the former being, however, more frequent because it is the one selected by the common verbal element ''-gi/ri-'' 'to have as'). It has also been analysed as having passive voice constructions, which are formed with the elements ''-saa-'' (composed of the passive participle suffix ''-sa-'' and ''-u-'' 'to be'), ''-neqar-'' (composed of the verbal noun suffix ''-neq-'' and ''-qar-'' 'to have') and ''-tit-'' (only to demote higher animate participants, also used with a reflexive causative meaning 'to cause, let [someone do something to one]'). In addition, an "impersonal passive" from intransitive verbs ''-toqar-'' (composed of intransitive agent suffix ''-toq-'' and ''-qar'' 'to have') has been identified.

Noun incorporation

There is also a debate in the linguistic literature on whether Greenlandic has

. The language does not allow the kind of incorporation that common in many other languages in which a noun root can be incorporated into almost any verb to form a verb with a new meaning. On the other hand, Greenlandic often forms verbs that include noun roots. The question then becomes whether to analyse such verb formations as incorporation or as denominal derivation of verbs. Greenlandic has a number of morphemes that require a noun root as their host and form complex predicates, which correspond closely in meaning to what is often seen in languages that have canonical noun incorporation. Linguists who propose that Greenlandic had incorporation argue that such morphemes are in fact verbal roots, which must incorporate nouns to form grammatical clauses. That argument is supported by the fact that many of the derivational morphemes that form denominal verbs work almost identically to canonical noun incorporation. They allow the formation of words with a semantic content that correspond to an entire English clause with verb, subject and object. Another argument is that the morphemes that derive denominal verbs come from historical noun incorporating constructions, which have become fossilized. Other linguists maintain that the morphemes in question are simply derivational morphemes that allow the formation of denominal verbs. That argument is supported by the fact that the morphemes are always latched on to a nominal element. These examples illustrate how Greenlandic forms complex predicates including nominal roots: {, class="wikitable" ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, qimmeq + -qar-, "dog" {} "have"} , {{interlinear, lang=kl, qimme- -qar- -poq, dog have 3SG, "She has a dog" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, illu + -lior-, "house" {} "make"} , {{interlinear, lang=kl, illu- -lior- -poq, house make 3SG, "She builds a house" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, kaffi + -sor-, "coffee" {} "drink/eat"} , {{interlinear, lang=kl, kaffi- -sor- -poq, coffee drink/eat 3SG, "She drinks coffee" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, puisi + -nniar-, "seal" {} "hunt"} , {{interlinear, lang=kl, puisi- -nniar- -poq, seal hunt 3SG, "She hunts seal" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, allagaq + -si-, "letter" {} "receive"} , {{interlinear, lang=kl, allagar- -si- -voq, letter receive 3SG, "She has received a letter" , - ! {{interlinear, lang=kl, anaana + -a-, "mother" {} {"to be" , {{interlinear, lang=kl, anaana- -a- -voq, mother {to be} 3SG, "She is a mother"

Nouns

Nouns are always inflected for case and number and sometimes for number and person of possessor. Singular and plural are distinguished and eight cases are used: absolutive, ergative (relative), instrumental, allative, locative, ablative, prosecutive (also called vialis or prolative) and equative. Case and number are marked by a single suffix. Nouns can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by a number of suffixes: {{lang, kl, atuar- "to read" + -{{lang, kl, fik "place" becomes {{lang, kl, atuarfik "school" and {{lang, kl, atuarfik + -{{lang, kl, tsialak "something good" becomes {{lang, kl, atuarfitsialak "good school". Since the possessive agreement suffixes on nouns and the transitive agreement suffixes on verbs in a number of instances have similar or identical shapes; there is even a theory that Greenlandic has a distinction between transitive and intransitive nouns, which id parallel to the same distinction in the verbs.{{efn, For example, the suffix with the shape {{lang, kl, -aa means "his/hers/its" when it is suffixed to a noun but "him/her/it" when it is suffixed to a verb. Likewise the suffix {{lang, kl, -ra means "my" or "me", depending on whether it is suffixed on a verb or a noun.

Pronouns

There are personal pronouns for first, second, and third person singular and plural. They are optional as subjects or objects but only when the verbal inflection refers to such arguments. {, class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" , + Personal pronouns , - ! scope="col" , ! scope="col" , Singular ! scope="col" , Plural , - ! scope="row" , 1st person , uanga , , uagut , - ! scope="row" , 2nd person , illit , , ilissi , - ! scope="row" , 3rd person , una , , uku Personal pronouns are, however, required in the oblique case: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , illit nere-qu-aatit , you {eat-tell to-3s-2s-IND} , 'He told you to eat'

Case

Both grammatical core cases, ergative and absolutive, are used to express grammatical and syntactical roles of participant noun phrases. The oblique cases express information related to movement and manner. {, class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 0 0 1em; float: right;" , + 3. Kalaallisut
case endings ! case ! singular ! plural , - ! Absolutive , -Ø , -(i)t , - ! Ergative , -(u)p , -(i)t , - ! Instrumental , -mik , -nik , - ! Allative , -mut , -nut , - ! Locative , -mi , -ni , - ! Ablative , -mit , -nit , - ! Prosecutive , -kkut , -tigut , - ! Equative , -tut , -tut {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , angut-Ø neri-voq , man-ABS eat-3sg , "The man eats" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , anguti-p puisi neri-vaa , man-ERG seal-ABS eat-3sg/3sg , "The man eats the seal" The instrumental case is versatile. It is used for the instrument with which an action is carried out, for oblique objects of intransitive verbs (also called antipassive verbs) and for secondary objects of transitive verbs. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , nanoq-Ø savim-mi-nik kapi-vaa , {polar bear}-ABS knife-his.own-INSTR stab-3sg/3sg , "He stabbed the bear with his knife" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Piitaq-Ø savim-mik tuni-vara , Peter-ABS knife-INSTR give-1sg/3sg , "I gave Peter a knife" There is no case marking if the noun is incorporated. Many sentences can be constructed oblique object as well as incorporated object. {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , kaffi-sor-tar-poq , coffee-drink-usually-3sg , "She usually drinks coffee" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , kaffi-mik imer-tar-poq , coffee-INSTR drink-usually-3sg , "She usually drinks coffee" It is also used to express the meaning of "give me" and to form adverbs from nouns: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , imer-mik! , water-INSTR , "(give me) water" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , sivisuu-mik sinip-poq , late-INSTR sleep-3sg , "He slept late" The allative case describes movement towards something.Bjørnum (2003) p.74 {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , illu-mut , house-ALL , "towards the house" It is also used with numerals and the question word ''qassit'' to express the time of the clock and in the meaning "amount per unit": {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , qassi-nut? – pingasu-nut. , when-ALL {} three-ALL , "When?" – "At three o'clock" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , kiilu-mut tiiva krone-qar-poq , kilo-ALL twenty crown-have-3sg , "It costs 20 crowns per kilo" The locative case describes spatial location: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , illu-mi , house-LOC , "in the house" The ablative case describes movement away from something or the source of something: {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Rasmussi-mit allagarsi-voq , Rasmus-ABL receive.letter-3sg , "He got a letter from Rasmus" The prosecutive case describes movement through something and the medium of writing or a location on the body. It is also used to describe a group of people such as a family as belonging to the modified noun.Bjørnum (2003) p. 75 {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , matu-kkut iser-poq , door-PROS enter-3SG , "He entered through the door" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , su-kkut tillup-paatit? , where-PROS hit-3sg/2sg , "Where (on the body) did he hit you?" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , palasi-kkut , priest-PROS , "the priest and his family" The equative case describes similarity of manner or quality. It is also used to derive language names from nouns denoting nationalities: "like a person of x nationality [speaks]". {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , nakorsatut suli-sar-poq , doctor-EQU work-HAB-3SG , "he works as a doctor" {{interlinear, lang=kl, number=ex: , Qallunaa-tut , dane-EQU , "Danish language (like a Dane)"

Possession

{, class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 0 0 1em; float: right;" , + 4. Absolutive possessive inflection for weak nouns ! Possessor ! Singular ! Plural , - , 1st person singular , ''illora'' "my house" , ''illukka'' "my houses" , - , 2nd person singular , ''illut'' "your house" , ''illutit'' "your houses" , - , 3rd person singular , ''illua'' "his house" , ''illui'' "his houses" , - , 4th person singular , ''illuni'' "his own house" , ''illuni'' "his own houses" , - , 1st person plural , ''illorput'' "our house" , ''illuvut'' "our houses" , - , 2nd person plural , ''illorsi'' "your (pl) house" , ''illusi'' "your (pl) houses" , - , 3rd Person plural , ''illuat'' "their house" , ''illui'' "their houses" , - , 4th person plural , ''illortik'' "their own house" , ''illutik'' "their own houses" In Greenlandic, possession (linguistics), possession is marked on the noun that agrees with the person and the number of its possessor. The possessor is in the ergative case. There are different possessive paradigms for each different case. Table 4 gives the possessive paradigm for the absolutive case of {{lang, kl, illu "house". Here are examples of the use of the possessive inflection, the use of the ergative case for possessors and the use of fourth person possessors. {{interlinear, number=ex:, lang=kl, Anda-p illu-a, Anda-ERG house-3SG/POSS, "Anda's house" {{interlinear, number=ex:, lang=kl, Anda-p illu-ni taku-aa, Anda-ERG house-4/POSS see-3SG/3SG, "Anda sees his own house" {{interlinear, number=ex:, lang=kl, Anda-p illu-a taku-aa, Anda-ERG house-3SG/POSS see-3SG/3SG, "Anda sees his (the other man's) house"

Numerals

The numerals and lower numbers are,{{cite book, last1=Dorais, first1=Louis-Jacques, title=The Language of the Inuit: Syntax, semantics, and society in the Arctic, date=2010, isbn=9780773536463 {, class=wikitable , - !1, , 2, , 3, , 4, , 5, , 6 , - , ataaseq , marluk , pingasut , sisamat , tallimat , arfinillit , - !7, , 8, , 9, , 10, , 11, , 12 , - , arfineq-marluk , arfineq-pingasut , qulaaluat,
qulingiluat,
arfineq-sisamat , qulit , isikkanillit,
aqqanillit , isikkaneq-marluk,
aqqaneq-marluk

Vocabulary

Most of Greenlandic's vocabulary is inherited from Proto-Eskimo–Aleut, but there are also a large number of loans from other languages, especially from Danish. Early loans from Danish have often become acculturated to the Greenlandic phonological system: the Greenlandic word {{lang, kl, palasi "priest" is a loan from the Danish {{lang, da, præst. However, since Greenlandic has an enormous potential for the derivation of new words from existing roots, many modern concepts have Greenlandic names that have been invented rather than borrowed: {{lang, kl, qarasaasiaq "computer" which literally means "artificial brain". The potential for complex derivations also means that Greenlandic vocabulary is built on very few roots, which, combined with affixes, form large word families. For example, the root for "tongue" {{lang, kl, oqaq is used to derive the following words: *{{lang, kl, oqarpoq 'says' *{{lang, kl, oqaaseq 'word' *{{lang, kl, oqaluppoq 'speaks' *{{lang, kl, oqallissaarut 'discussion paper' *{{lang, kl, oqaasilerisoq 'linguist' *{{lang, kl, oqaasilerissutit 'grammar' *{{lang, kl, oqaluttualiortoq 'author' *{{lang, kl, oqaloqatigiinneq 'conversation' *{{lang, kl, oqaasipiluuppaa 'harangues him' *{{lang, kl, oqaatiginerluppaa 'speaks badly about him' Lexical differences between dialects are often considerable because of the earlier cultural practice of imposing a taboo on words that had served as names for a deceased person. Since people were often named after everyday objects, many of them have changed their name several times because of taboo rules, another cause of the divergence of dialectal vocabulary.

Orthography

Greenlandic is written with the

. The alphabet consists of 18 Letter (alphabet), letters: * A E F G I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V {{vr, b, c, d, h, w, x, y, z, æ, ø, å are used to spell loanwords, especially from Danish and English. Greenlandic uses "..." and »...« as non-English usage of quotation marks, quotation marks. From 1851 until 1973, Greenlandic was written in an alphabet invented by

, which used the ''Kra (letter), kra'' ({{vr, ĸ, capitalised {{vr, K’) which was replaced by {{vr, q in the 1973 Spelling reform, reform. In the Kleinschmidt alphabet, long vowels and Geminate consonant, geminate consonants were indicated by Diacritic, diacritics on vowels (in the case of consonant gemination, the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant). For example, the name ''Kalaallit Nunaat'' was spelled ''Kalâdlit Nunât''. This scheme uses the circumflex (◌̂) to indicate a long vowel (e.g. {{vr, ât, ît, ût; modern: {{vr, aat, iit, uut), an acute accent (◌́) to indicate gemination of the following consonant: (i.e. {{vr, ák, ík, úk; modern: {{vr, akk, ikk, ukk) and, finally, a tilde (◌̃) or a grave accent (◌̀), depending on the author, indicates vowel length and gemination of the following consonant (e.g. {{vr, ãt/àt, ĩt/ìt, ũt/ùt; modern: {{vr, aatt, iitt, uutt). {{vr, ê, ô, used only before {{vr, r, q, are now written {{vr, ee, oo in Greenlandic. The spelling system of Nunatsiavummiutut, spoken in Nunatsiavut in northeastern Labrador, is derived from the old Greenlandic system. Technically, the Kleinschmidt orthography focused upon Morphology (linguistics), morphology: the same derivational affix would be written in the same way in different contexts, despite its being pronounced differently in different contexts. The 1973 reform replaced this with a phonological system: Here, there was a clear link from written form to pronunciation, and the same suffix is now written differently in different contexts: for example {{vr, e, o do not represent separate phonemes, but only more open pronunciations of {{IPA, /i/ {{IPA, /u/ before {{IPA, /q/ {{IPA, /ʁ/. The differences are due to phonological changes. It is therefore easy to go from the old orthography to the new (cf. the online converter){{cite web, url=http://giellatekno.uit.no/cgi/d-kal.eng.html, title=Programs for analysing Greenlandic, website=giellatekno.uit.no, access-date=20 March 2018 whereas going the other direction would require a full lexical analysis.

Example text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greenlandic: (Pre-reform) :{{lang, kl, Inuit tamarmik inúngorput nangminêrsivnâgsusseĸarlutik agsigĩmigdlo atarĸinagsusseĸarlutigdlo pisivnâtitãfeĸarlutik. Silaĸagsussermik tarnigdlo nalúngigsussianik pilerssugaugput, ingmingnudlo iliorfigeĸatigĩtariaĸaraluarput ĸatángutigĩtut peĸatigîvnerup anersâvane. (Post-reform) :{{lang, kl, Inuit tamarmik inunngorput nammineersinnaassuseqarlutik assigiimmillu ataqqinassuseqarlutillu pisinnaatitaaffeqarlutik. Silaqassusermik tarnillu nalunngissusianik pilersugaapput, imminnullu iliorfigeqatigiittariaqaraluarput qatanngutigiittut peqatigiinnerup anersaavani. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: :"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Notes

{{notelist

Abbreviations

For affixes about which the precise meaning is the cause of discussion among specialists, the suffix itself is used as a gloss, and its meaning must be understood from context: -SSA (meaning either future or expectation), -NIKUU and -SIMA.

References

{{Reflist, 30em

Sources

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Collis, title=Arctic languages: an awakening, location=Paris, pages=293–308, publisher=Unesco, isbn=978-92-3-102661-4 * {{cite journal , author=Rosen, Sara T. , year=1989 , title=Two types of noun incorporation: A lexical analysis , journal=Language , volume=65 , issue=2 , pages=294–317 , jstor=415334 , doi=10.2307/415334 , hdl=1808/17539 , url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/1808/17539/1/Rosen_1989.pdf , hdl-access=free * {{cite journal, author=Sadock, Jerrold , author-link=Jerrold Sadock, year=1980, title=Noun incorporation in Greenlandic: A case of syntactic word-formation , journal=Language , volume=57, issue=2, pages=300–319 , jstor=413758 , doi=10.1353/lan.1980.0036, s2cid=54796313 * {{cite journal, author=Sadock, Jerrold , year=1986, title=Some notes on noun incorporation, journal= Language , volume=62 , issue=1 , pages=19–31, jstor=415598, doi=10.2307/415598 * {{cite journal, author=Sadock, Jerrold , title=The Nominalist Theory of Eskimo: A Case Study in Scientific Self Deception , year=1999 , journal=International Journal of American Linguistics, volume=65, pages=383–406 , doi=10.1086/466400 , jstor=1265857, issue=4, s2cid=144784179 * {{cite book, author=Sadock, Jerrold , year=2003, title=A Grammar of Kalaallisut (West Greenlandic Inuttut), location=Munich, publisher=Lincom Europa , isbn=978-3-89586-234-2 * {{cite conference , author=Shaer, Benjamin , year=2003 , title=Toward the tenseless analysis of a tenseless language , conference=2nd Conference on the Semantics of Under-represented Languages in the Americas , book-title=Proceedings of SULA 2 , publisher=GLSA, University of Massachusetts Amherst , editor1=Jan Anderssen , editor2=Paula Menéndez-Benito , editor3=Adam Werle , pages=139–56 , url=http://www.umass.edu/linguist/events/SULA/SULA_2003_cd/files/shaer.pdf * {{cite book, chapter=11. 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location=Amsterdam, publisher=John Benjamins, series=Typological studies in language, 2, isbn=978-90-272-2862-8, chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/291 {{Refend

External links

{{InterWiki, code=kl {{Wikivoyage, Greenlandic phrasebook, Greenlandic, a phrasebook {{Wikinews, Greenland {{Commons category
General Usage of the Greenlandic Language Papers
at Dartmouth College Library
Oqaasileriffik (The Greenland Language Secretariat)
(version in English) {{Greenlandic language {{Eskimo-Aleut languages {{Languages of Denmark {{Greenland topics {{Authority control Greenlandic language, Inuit languages Languages of Greenland Indigenous languages of the North American Arctic Indigenous languages of the Americas Agglutinative languages Languages of Denmark Indigenous languages of North America